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ех. 4
An American Science Community has
concluded after one of. its researches that
Mendeleev's periodic table of elements
was the niost important discovery the
humanity made... even more important
than the discovery of iron.
The Commumty has published a list of 10
most important discoveries the humani-
ty ever made. The results of this research
were based on answers of а survey con-
ducted by the community.
According to that survey:
- the second most important discovery„
following the Mendeleev's period table
of elements, was the discovery of iron
processing (Egypt 3500 В.С.);
- transistor discovery was the invention
оf John Bardeen and colleagues in 1948;
- fourth invention was declared the
glass processing (circa 2200 В.С in
South-Western Iran);
- fifth discovery was named the inven-
tion of the optical microscope in the 17th
century;
- invention оf concrete by John Smeaton
was placed on the sixth place among the
inventions;
- the seventh invention in the list was
given to the steel processing, found about,
year 300 В.С. in India;
- brass processing in about 5000 В.С. on
the presenl, territory of Turkey has takеn
the eighth entry in the list;
--- ninth position was taken by the dis-
covery of diffraction of Roentgen rays in
1912 by Max von Lane;
- the last, but not the least, was named Henry Bessemer's iron processing technology, invented in 1856.
b)
Маny people will herald the creation of the light bulb, I will not.
Some people will tell of the creation of the steam powered machine to be man' s greatest invention, not I. I do not seek to acknowledge the inventions that only revolutionize the human world. Although I do recognize these inventions as greai, leaps in human technology. The invention of which I speak is a very simple invention. So simple that it' s importance in the world has been over looked many times. The single most important invention in the world is the wheel. To utilize а round object and use its shape as a tool. As a moving helper, as a pulley, as anything that needs a round object the possibilities are limitless. But to take that shape and think of making it useful in whatever way will help your needs. Now that is the most important invention of the world. Whether it is a tree trunk for rolling big slabs of rock, or a gear inside of a watch. The revolution of the wheel or rather the shape has in its own way been re-created over and over but the base invention is what made it аll possible. Everything that uses something with a round shape stems from that base idea of using the round object to further whatever you happen to be doing. Without the wheel it is hard to say what would never have been invented, built, or used.
There is one item which has revolutionised almost everything we do. It is the transistor. What most people do not know is that it was first invented in around 1927 by a man called Lilleilfleld. All that is known аbout 1118 inventions are some Canadian patents he described. These include amplifiers and radios using his devices. Around 20 years later Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain produced an equivalent device. It wasn' t until the early 1950s that the newer transistor became a usable aniplifying device. Lilienfield had been there first. Coupled with the transistor is the development of what
is known as the planar process. This enabled transistors tobe made like layers of paint in enormous quantities at а time. Nearly all modern electronics technology is based on electronic circuits made like layers of paint. Lilienfield's devices have a strong mechanical resemblance to planar transistors.
They were made in three layers. The early Shockley Bardeen and Brattain transistors were developments of the cats whisker and crystal used in very early radios. The present electronic symbol for a transistor is based on this cats whisker and crystal design.
Quite obviously it is the bicycle. It converts human effort into useful energy with extraordinary efficiency. When used instead of à motor vehicle, it addresses several of the scourges of modern living -obesity and poor health, air pollution, greenhouse gases, and noise.
° The automatic washing machine, it' s
done more to free ordinary working women, and mothers in particular, from domestic drudgery pretty much than any other single invention.
The telephone must be the most significant development. It is a relatively simple device but has changed the way we live and shortened distance. The telephone is used by virtually all communities throughout the world.
° Electricity! Have you ever imagined
yourself without it? You would not be reading this, for sure and a BIG part of the inventions that people have mentioned here would not exist without it. Remember "nothing comes from noting".
I will nominate discovery of the Х- Rays as our greatest technological innovation. Х-Ray units are used for diagnosis or early detection of many diseases. For example, mammography can detect breast cancer at an early stage and full recovery may be possiblе with an appropriate intervention.
Thanks to W.Conrad Roentgen с-d) 1 have chosen what I think are the greatest niodern inventions and listed them from least to most important.
10. Modern Plumbing
The ability to remove sewage from and l bring clean water into places of dense human habitation makes the modern city possible. Without it, we' d still have cities, but not like the ones we know. А high- rise building would be impossible, really, without toilets and plumbing. Remove i apartment buildings, office towers, and dense downtown cores from your picture of the world and you have to change the whole rest of your picture too, because the implications keep rippling.
9. Printing Press
The printing press was the first one of many communication mediums, changing how information was collected, stored, retrieved, criticized, discovered, and promoted. It has been implicated in the Reformation, the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution. Johannes Gutenberg is credited with inventing the first printing press in the Western civilizations of Europe. Screw presses for olives and wine had been known in Europe since Roman times; presses for the binding of manuscript books were also in use. Gutenberg was the first to convert the concept for printing uses. Gutenberg's use of mechanical presses along with other innovations made printing a proto-industrial process with à far greater output compared to manuscripts made by copyists.
8. Automobile
In 1759, the very first self-propelled road vehicle was invented by French mechanic, Nicolas Joseph Cugnot. However, it was a steam-powered model. In 1885, Karl Benz designed and built the world's first practical automobile to be powered by internal-combustion engine. In 1885, Gottlieb Daimler took the internal combustion engine a step further and patented what is generally recognized as the prototype of the modern gas engine and later built the world' s first four-wheeled motor vehicle.
7. Pesticides
Since before 2500 ВС, humans have used pesticides to prevent damage to their crops. The first known pesticide was elemental sulfur dusting used in Sumeria
about 4,500 years ago. By the 15th century„ toxic cheruicals such as arsenic, mercury and lead were being applied to crops to kill pests. In 1939, Paul Miiller discovered that DDT was a very effective insecticide. It quickly became the most widely-used pesticide in the world.
However, in the 1960s, it was discovered that DDT was preventing many fish-eating birds from reproducing which was a huge threat to biodiversity. Pesticide use has increased 50-fold since 1950, and 2.5 niillion tons of industrial pesticides are now used each year.
6. Steam Engine
Thomas Savery was an English military engineer and inventor who in 1698, patented the first crude steam engine. Thomas Newconien invented the atmospheric steam engine in 1712. James Watt's incarnation of the steam engine ushered in the Industrial Revolution. His centrifugal governor kept the engine running at the desired rate, and is a modification so simple and elegant that it may be one of the best ideas of аll time.
5. Computers
In 1837, Charles Babbage was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable mechanical computer that he called "The Analytical Engine". Due to limited finance, and an inability to resist tinkering with the design, Babbage never actually built his Analytical Engine.
Large-scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the U.S. Census in 1890 by tabulating machines designed by Herman Hollerith and manufactured by he Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation, which later became IBM.
4. Transistors
The transistor is ihe fundamental building block of the circuitry that governs ihe operation of computers, cellular phones, and аll other niodcrn electron! ics. On 16 December 1947 William Shock-
ley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain succeeded in building the first practical point-contact transistor at Bell Labs.
This work followed from their war-time efforts to produce extremely pure ger-manium "crystal" mixer diodes, used
in radar units as à frequency mixer element in microwave radar receivers.
3. Plastic
Plastic is composed of organic condensation or addition polymers and may contain other substances to improve performance or economics. There are few natural polymers generally considered to be "plastics". The first plastic based on a synthetic polymer was made from phenol and formaldehyde, with the first viable and cheap synthesis methods invented by Lео Hendrik Backeland in 1909, the product being known as Bakelite. Subsequently polyvinyl chloride), polystyrene, polyethylene (polyethene), polypropylene (polypropene), роlyamides (nylons), polyesters, acrylics, silicones, polyurethanes were amongst the many varieties of plastics developed and have great commercial success.
2. Harnessed Electricity
Electricity existed аll along, but the system of devices needed to generate this force and distribute it to imlividual buildings was an invention, launched initially by Edison: Не effectively turned electricity into a salable commodity and his Pearl Street station was the world' s first electric power station. Nikola Tesla's invention of alternating current (АС) technology then made it possible to transmit electricity over long distances, leading to the nationwide grid we know today. Now, anyone in the West and throughout most of the world can tap into the grid to power everything from light bulbs to computers.
1. Immunization/ Antibiotics
Three centuries ago, almost everyone died of infectious diseases. When the plague broke out in 1347, it killed nearly half of Europe -- in aboiit two years. When diseases such as smallpox reached North Amenca, they reduced the indigenous population by about 90 percent within а century. As late аs 1800, the leading cause of death in the West was tuberculosis. Hardly anyone died of old age back then, one reason why еlders were revered. Today, еlder are a dime а dozen: nothing umisual about surviving past 70. In the United States, 73 percent of people die of heart failure, cancer, and stroke.
е) Well-known scientists explorers, inventors and discoverers:
Scientists
Euclid (с. 325 - 265 ВС) - mathematician; Euclidian geoinetry.
Archimedes (с. 287 -212 ВС) -ancient Greek mathematician and philosopher who made fundamental discoveries in the fields of physics and engineering.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519) - Italian polymath: scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatoniist, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, and writer.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 -1543) - astronomer who formulated the first modern heliocentric theory of the solar system.
Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) - physicist, astronomer, astrologer, and philosopher; improvements to the telescope, astronomical observations, and effective support for heliocentric theory of the solar system.
Rеnе Descartes [Renatus Cartesius] (1596 - 1650) - "Founder of Modern Philosophy" and "Father of Modern Mathematics"; the Cartesian coordinate system is named after him; described dualism of machine-like body and a nonmaterial mind; argued that only humans have minds.
JohannesKepler (1571 - 1630) - mathematician, astrononier and astrologer, best known for his laws of planetary motion.
Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) - physicist; theory of universal gravitation; laws of motion.
Inventors
Archimedes (с. 287-212 BC) - ancient Greek inathematician and philosopher who madе fundamental discoveries in the fields of physics and engineering.
Cai Lun (с. 50 - 121 AD) - inventor of раpеr.
Johannes Gutenberg (1400-1468) -- inventor movable type printing in Europe; Нis major work is the Gutenberg Bible.
James Watt (1736-1819) - inventor of the steam engine.
Samuel Моrsе (1791-1872) -со inventor (with Alfred Vail) of the Morse Code.
Nikolaus Otto (1832 - 1891) - inventor of
the internal-combustion engine.
Alfred Nobel (1833 - 1896) - inventor of
dynamite.
Alexander Graham Bell (1847 - 1922) - inventor of the telephone.
Thomas Alva Edison (1847 - 1931) - inventor and businessman; phonograph, electric railway, iron ore separator, elec-
tric lighting, and other inventions.
Explorers and Pioneers
Marco Polo (с. 1254 - 1324) - one of the
first Westerners to travel the Silk Road
to China.
Christopher Columbus (1451 - 1506)
discoverer of the Americas.
Amerigo Vespucci (1454 - 1512) - Italian
merchant, explorer and cartographer.
Vespucci's voyages became widely known
in Europe. In 1507, a world map was pro-
duced which named the new continent
"America" after Vespucci's first паше,
Amerigo.
Vasco da Gama (с. 1469 - 1524) Portuguese
explorer, the first person to sail directly
from Europe to India.
Many explorcrs were lured by the quest
for valuable spices. Magellan was no ex-
ception, trying to find a westward sea
passage from Spain to the Moluccas, or
Spice Islands, located in present-day In-
donesia. Though Magellan did not inake
it back to Spain with his crew (one ship of
five and 18 out of the original 100 sailors
survived the three-year journey), he was
known as the man who captained the first
fleet of ships to sail around the world,
and his voyage was the first to discover
the effects ol' trade wincls in the Pacific
Осеаn.
James Cook: Captain Cook, a British
Royal Navy officer, whose journeys took
him to New Zealand, Hawaii, Alaska and
Australia. On each of his three Pacifiic
voyages, scientists came along to observe
and document new plant and animal spe-
cies previously unheard оf in England.
Cook was sent to Tahiti to observe an
eclipse, but secretly he was looking for
the Unknown Southern Continent. On
his second voyage, his two ships sailed
through the Antarctic, then went on to
Tahiti, Tonga, New Zealand, Easter Is-
land, the New Hebrides and Caledonia.
When he made his final voyage, Cook brought domestic animals to New Zealand аndTahiti. At that time, he claimed Christmas Island for England, became the first European to land in Hawaii and then sailed to Alaska. Though he is credited with opening up the Pacific, many South Pacific islanders blame him, and expeditions like his, for destroying the lives of many indigenous people by bringing diseases, guns, war and alcohol to the South Pacific and forcing islanders off their lands.
Champlain, known as the "Father of New France," made 21 voyages across the Аtlantic to North America to search for а water route to Asia and to find à site for French settlement. He was ordered to make reports and maps, to make peace with the natives and bring Christianity to them, and to search for gold and silver deposits. His voyages took him to the Caribbean -Guadaloupe, Mexico, Panama aiid Cuba - as well as to North America where he explored the St. Lawrence River. Champlain's major contribution to Canada was the establishment of the French culture and language in North America.
Ponce de Leyn was a Spanish conquistador, military commander and explorer who served as à page and à squire in his youth. His claim to fame is the discovery of Florida in 1533 and the Gulf Stream, and he was the first European to establish a colony in what is now known as Puerto Rico, serving as its first governor. He also searched for the legendary
Fountain of Youth. As governor of Caparra, near Рuerto Rico, he used the Taino natives to help build stone houses and plant crops, and established a cas-
sava plantation. Then, while in search of Bimini, he actually sighted the Florida peninsula and explored the area now
called the Florida Keys. Because of the
lush vegetation and the fertile land he saw there, he asked the king of Spain's
permission to make a second voyage to Floridа to start a colony. He brought 200 men and women, including doctors and priests, as well as domestic animals and
seeds for agriculture, but the colony wa abandoned after an attack by local na tives. Today, Ponce de Leyn's legacy evident in Puerto Rico, where Spanish is still the official language and Roma< Catholicism, brought to the island b the Spanish, is the main religion. Even though the Taino have died out, their in ventions of hammocks and barbecues аre used worldwide.
Sieur de La Salle: R. Robert Cavalier why got his name, La Salle, from the nanu of the Cavelier family estate. Born ir France, he traveled to North Americi and served as à seigneur in New France assigning land to French habitants anc founding a village. La Salle formed an аl. liance with the Iroquois and built a trading post at what is now known as Kitchener, Ontario. His travels took him down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, the Great Lakes area, and the southern United States, where he claimed the land around the Mississippi River Valley, naming it Louisiana after the French king. He also established many forts in both Canada and the U.S.
Marco Polo: Marco Polo, an Italian, who, with his father and brother, spent 25 years in the Orient. Polo lived during the 1200s when peace was declared between the Mongols of Asia and the Europeans, allowing Europeans to travel the Silk Road, trade routes соnnected large trade centers. For 17 years, Polo served as an ambassador to Kublai Khan who sent him on many missions to variоus parts of Asia to document what he saw. And what he saw was considered at the tinie to be amazing - people riding on elephants, pagodas made of gold and silver, Burmese people with their teeth covered in gold. His travels through Turkey, Аrmenia, Ukraine, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkestan, China and the Gobi Desert netted plenty of information for the reports he provided for Кhan. From his travels, Polo learned about silkwonns and si!k cloth, candle wicks, paper money, postal delivery and coal heat, аll of which are Сhinese inventions and which have influenced life all around the world.
f) High technology is highly advanced I technological development (especially in electronics) It is technology that is at the cutting edge - the most advanced tech, nology currently available.
New technologies mean the latest technology offerings. New technologies have the potential to accelerate a country' s development.
g) Science is actually an important area of learning. It' s a kind of subject that i studying all of it would be impossible!
That' s why scientists concentrate on the i area of science which interests them the most and they specialise in one particular area. The main three categories of science are Biology, Chemistry and Physics.
And these three categories are divided to other subcategories and this table shows different kinds of scientists.
The botanist studies how plants live and grow. He explores the ways of using plants for food or for medicines.
The geologist studies substances in the Earth, how the Earth was formed and how it changes.
Meteorologists look at the Earth' s atmosphere and meausre the changes that produce our weather.
Marine biologist studies all the plants and animals in the sea, from huge whales to tiny diatoms.
The biochemist finds out about the chemical processes that make all living things work
The astronomer studies everything in the universe, like stars nad planets. They try to discover how the universe works.
IIuman biologist a udies how the human body works, what can go wrong with it can be cured.
The pharmacist makes drugs and medicines to treat diseases.
Nuclear physicist studies the behaviour of tiny particles inside atoms.
Microbiologist studies tiny creatures, such as algae and bacteria
Physical chemist studies the atoms and molecuies that make up all matter.
Civil engineer plans and supervises the building of large construction projects, such as bridges and tunnels.
Scientists always work in teams. Each member of a team must specialise in a different area. The make à team that like а chain, everyone has a specified job, so that they can invent or create something successfully without any Errors or mistakes.
Scientists are interested in the world around us. They take special notice of things they are curious about, and try to understand how they work.They begin by analyzing them. This means they break up any problem they wish to solve into а larger number of smaller problems. ln other words, they break up a puzzle into small pieces. Then they try to solve each of. the smaller problems, and use these solutions to see if they can put the whole puzzle together. To solve pieces of a puzzle, they use tools which help us. These tools help us measure things and are called quantitative. They can use a ruler to tell us how long something is. They use a scale to see how much something weighs. Each of these measurements help us to understand the pieces of the puzzle. Sometimes they use a computer to put the pieces together tо solve the original problem.
h) How to Become a Scientist
Step One. First, if you haven' t already done so, make a thorough examination оf yourself as to whether you really do want to go into science and become à scientist. Do you know what becoming a scientist entails? Spend a fcw days, or longer, dоing this self- examination. Just make sure that becoming a scientist is really what you want to do. The following wау sound сlichy to you, but it is very true: so many people just rush into a job because they do not of what what else is out there. So dо take а little time out of уоur busy schedule to reflect if this is what you would like to do for the rest of your life. There is nothing wrong about, being a scientist,. You may really like it. Just make sure that your temperament and personality fit this type of job and that, you know what а typical day of being a scientist is like. Different people are suited to different jobs. Уоu will excel and be happier in а job that suits you more tha in one that
is molded onto you by society. All jobs are worthy because everyone can make a difference to society in any job. We need cashiers, people dumping garbage, taxi drivers, computer programmers, etc. In choosing your favorite occupation and excelling in it, you will make your stamp in this world most pronounced.
Step Two. Get good marks. In order to qualify for university and graduate school, you will need good marks throughout your entire academic journey. Try also to enjoy what you are learning and try to learn for (Ье sake of learning.
Step Three. You will almost certainly need a graduate degree, likely a Ph.D. Try to find all the programs and schools that you think you might have an interest in and thoroughly read through their curriculunb admissIon policies, and the success rates of their graduates obtaining good positions. Prepare as early as possible for admission. You do noi. want to miss deadlines, or not do something thai, could easily have been done.
Step Four. Obtain some job experience or do some job shadowing with scientists. This will allow you to find out what being а scientist is like. Maybe you really hate it. Maybe you love it. It' s a great opportunity to broaden your horizons even if you decide not to Ьесоьпе à scientist in the future. Getting job or volunteer experience will also look very favorable to future employers, as they ЫИ know that you were capable enough that someone trusted you with their work. It will also а11оьь уои to get reference letters il' you need any. Last, but not least, you will gain practiсаl cxpcrьепсе аььг1 contacts as a scientist that ьпау Ье1р you in уош future job.
Step Five. Keep an eye on various places where iherе ьпау Ье 1оЬ postlngs right Хгоььь day one that уоп с1еси1е уои лььььЪ to become а scientisi,. Even if you аге not yet qualified for the lob, job postings give уои à very good idea about what type of skills employers аге looking for. You may want io Ьопе those skills or Iеагп 1,1ьсьп during the next several years. 01' course, with technology сЬаььд1ьье so гарЫ1у, those ааьпе skills соьь1ь1 Ьесоьпе оЬао1еФе, so try to pick skills that you think will
is molded onto you by society. All jobs are worthy because everyone can make a difference to society in any job. We need cashiers, people dumping garbage, taxi drivers, computer programmers, etc. In choosing your favorite occupation and excelling in it, you will make your stamp in this world most pronounced.
Step Two. Get good marks. In order to qualify for university and graduate school, you will need good marks throughout your entire academic journey. Try also to enjoy what you are learning and try to learn for thе sake of learning.
Step Three. You will almost certainly need a graduate degree, likely a Ph.D. Try to find all the programs and schools that you think you might have an interest in and thoroughly read through their curriculunb admissIon policies, and the success rates of their graduates obtaining good positions. Prepare as early as possible for admission. You do noi. want to miss deadlines, or not do something thai, could easily have been done.
Step Four. Obtain some job experience or do some job shadowing with scientists. This will allow you to find out what being а scientist is like. Maybe you really hate it. Maybe you love it. It' s a great opportunity to broaden your horizons even if you decide not to become a scientist in the future. Getting job or volunteer experience will also look very favorable to future employers, as they will know that you were capable enough that someone trusted you with their work. It will also аllow уоu to get reference letters you need any. Last, but not least, you will gain practiсаl experience аndcontacts as a scientist that may helр you in уоur future job.
Step Five. Keep an eye on various places where therе mау bе job postlngs right from day one that you decide уоu want to become а scientist. Even if you аrе not yet qualified for the lob, job postings give уоu a very good idea about what type of skills employers аrе looking for. You may want to hоnе those skills or Iеаrn them during the next several years. Of course, with technology сhanging so rарidlу, those same skills соuld become оbsolete, so try to pick skills that you think will
be around for a while and will be usefu in the future in a broad range of situs tions.
Step Six. Decide if you want to specialize in the future. If you do, then you should try to go to à post-secondary institutioi that specializes in your particular spe cialty. It will make you а mоrе attractive and competitive candidate when it come. time to look for a job. Be careful abou' specializing too early, though, or evei specializing at all, as that specialty mal become obsolete or not in as much de mand when you are ready to go into the workforce. However, specializing defi. nitely has its advantages, as you will be the recognized expert in your specialty, You may even be paid more, which is why many people specialize. So do consider iI to be a viable option.
Step Seven. Choose your employer carefully. If you do not think that you would fit in a particular company, you probably should not even apply there. Of course, you should try not to be picky, but do try Со make an effort to think à little about what type of company and work environment you desire. You don' t want to be finding another job in twо months.
Step Eight. Once you have a job as a scientist, try to distinguish yourself a little every day. The objective is not to get а promotion or à pay raise, although that would be à nice bonus, but just as a duty Со yourself. А pledge to yourself to try to make your job a little bit better for other people. The extra effort will make yourself feel pleased, as well as really do a service to others. Also consider upgrading your skills once in a while by taking courses or learning by yourself. Try not to over-exert yourself, though, when working or when spending extra time to learn skills. But do put in à good day' s work. Work in a relaxed manner. Work at а comfortable расе, but just do not slack at your duty. After all, it' s your profession!
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